Beowulf Cliff Notes The poet In modern, written poetry, we often judge the excellence of the creator by the use of unusual but appropriate imagery. The more original the poem is, the better. The bards who performed in the oral-formulaic tradition, however, were evaluated for the skill with which they could weave together familiar phrases in that poetic tradition in order to tell a story that was either already known to the audience or that was an extemporaneous effort by the scop (a traveling bard). The poet’s apprenticeship would have included learning certain traditional themes, popular stories, names of various characters, and the formulas through which the bard eventually performed the tales or created his own stories. We might expect a performer to be able to fit the theme of the piece, and even the length, to a particular occasion, as Hrothgar’s scop does in Beowulf. The more accomplished bard would be the one who made most effective use of the common arsenal of formulas. A popular piece might be presented over the course of two or three or more evenings. If a poet happened upon an especially effective formula of his own, the phrasing would become part of the oral-formulaic lexicon. Borrowing images or phrases from each other was accepted and expected. Francis P. Magoun, Jr., a noted Beowulf scholar, closely examined the first 50 verses of Beowulf and found that approximately 70 percent appear entirely or in part in other Anglo-Saxon poetry, even though there were only about 30,000 lines of Old English poems available for comparison. Magoun maintains that virtually all of the phrasing could be found elsewhere if we had a larger body of Anglo-Saxon works. This clearly alters how we look at the “authorship” of the poem. Some scholars suggest that the person who put together the extant version of Beowulf was no more than an editor or organizer of poems created by others, probably over generations. Others credit the poet with considerable creativity while welcoming the evidence of oral tradition. It may be that a trained scop dictated the work to a scribe or that the poet had become literate, probably educated at one of the monasteries that existed in England at the time, which could account for the Christian influences in what probably was originally a pagan poem. Whatever the method was, the excellence of the work implies that the final result was the product of one very talented poet. The text We cannot be certain when the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf was composed, how it was created, or exactly when it was written down. What we can do is pay attention to top scholars in the field and make some pretty good guesses. The only surviving manuscript of Beowulf is written in Old English (Anglo-Saxon). Rather than being composed at a specific time, the poem probably developed out of various influences, especially folk tales and traditions. Parts of it may have originally been performed by court poets or traveling bards (scops, pronounced “shops,” in the Anglo-Saxon) who would have sung or chanted their poems to the accompaniment of a musical instrument such as a harp. We can conclude, then, that the work grew out of popular art forms, that various influences worked together, and that the story may have changed as it developed. During the late 1920s and early 1930s, an American scholar named Milman Parry revolutionized the study of live performances of epics. He demonstrated convincingly that ancient Greek poems (the Iliad and the Odyssey) were composed in an oral-formulaic style based on tradition and designed to help the performer produce a long piece from memory or improvise material as he went along. Francis P. Magoun, Jr., in his essay, “The Oral-Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poetry,” published in the literary journal Speculum in 1953 (Vol. XXVIII, 446–467), demonstrates that the poems were recited or, more likely, sung or chanted, to audiences in the way that similar works are presented in Beowulf. An example in the epic itself is the performance of The Finnsburh Episode (lines 1063 ff.) when Hrothgar’s scop honors Beowulf for his victory over Grendel. Magoun points out that the bards relied on language specifically developed for the poetry, formulas worked out over a long period of time and designed to fit the metrical demands of a given line while expressing whatever ideas the poet wished to communicate. Although primarily a pagan poem, Beowulf contains Christian allusions that cannot be ignored. There is no mention of Jesus in Beowulf, and references to God seem based on the Old Testament rather than the New. But King Hrothgar and Beowulf sometimes refer to a single, all-powerful God, and there are instances of symbolic rebirth in the poem, such as Beowulf’s emergence from the mere after his defeat of Grendel’s mother. The fight with the dragon, late in the poem, especially seems to have Christian overtones. Counting the thief, Beowulf is accompanied by 12 associates, most of whom desert him (reminding us of Christ’s apostles). We are told that God’s will is done throughout the poem. Still, many of the Christian references have the feel of afterthoughts. It seems more likely that they were added to the work as it developed—not necessarily by one scop or scribe but by several, all trying to make the poem more palatable to an increasingly Christian audience. The manuscript that we end up with is clearly influenced by Christian philosophy but remains heavily heroic. What, then, can we conclude about the making of Beowulf? The poem was created in the oral-formulaic mode, based on folk tales and tradition, and probably composed as a whole sometime in the eighth century (700–800 ad) in England. The setting of the action in the epic is Denmark and Sweden in the fifth or sixth centuries, but the tone probably was altered to appeal to later audiences. Although a number of scops may have contributed to the poem’s development, our version most likely was the creation of one poet. While the poem may have been altered over the 200 or more years before it was set down in writing, the oral-formulaic tradition would have limited the changes. It was written late in the tenth century (circa 1000 ad) by a scribe who probably was educated in a Christian monastery. He may have been a scop himself, or the work could have been dictated to him. Beowulf may or may not be the first great heroic poem in English literature, as some scholars claim. It is, however, the one that survived. About the Work Introduction Beowulf probably was composed in England sometime in the eighth century ad and written down circa 1000 ad by a literate scop (bard) or perhaps a Christian scribe who was possibly educated in a monastery. The poem was created in the oral-formulaic tradition (or oral poetic method), probably developing over a period of time with roots in folk tales and traditional stories until a single, very talented poet put it in something very near its current form. The poem would have been performed for audiences at court or on the road as the scop (preferred pronunciation, “shop”) found audiences to support him. The scop would sing or chant the poem, rather than recite it, usually to the accompaniment of a harp. The scop’s audience was probably familiar with the story and the various allusions in the poem. The poet’s skill was judged by how well he could weave the stories into an effective, entertaining presentation. Performances like this are presented in Beowulf by Hrothgar’s court scop, honoring Beowulf. Note: Quotations are from Howell D. Chickering, Jr.’s dual-language (facing-page) translation, Beowulf (New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1977), introduction and commentary by the translator. Lines quoted are simply indicated in parentheses. In the Anglo-Saxon, each line is separated into two parts by a caesura (indicated by spacing). Here, the extra spacing has been eliminated from brief quotes for the sake of simplicity. Beowulf as Epic Scholars debate almost everything about Beowulf, including the question of whether it should be considered an epic at all. An epic is a long narrative poem, composed in an elevated style, dealing with the trials and achievements of a great hero or heroes. The epic celebrates virtues of national, military, religious, cultural, political, or historical significance. The word “epic” itself comes from the Greek epos, originally meaning “word” but later “oration” or “song.” Like all art, an epic may grow out of a limited context but achieves greatness in relation to its universality. Epics typically emphasize heroic action as well as the struggle between the hero’s own ethos and his human failings or mortality. All of these characteristics apply to Beowulf. The hero, Beowulf, is the title character. He represents the values of the heroic age, specifically the Germanic code of comitatus—the honor system that existed in Scandinavian countries in the fifth and sixth centuries between a king, or feudal lord, and his warriors (thanes). Thanes swore devotion to their leader and vowed to fight boldly, to the death if necessary, for him. If the leader should fall, his thanes must avenge his life. For his part, the leader rewarded his thanes with treasure, protection, and land. His generosity often was considered a virtue and a mark of character. Courage, loyalty, and reputation were other virtues for these warriors, and we can look for them as themes in the poem. The code of the comitatus is at the heart of the Beowulf epic. Increasingly, scholars distinguish between two types of epic. The first, the primary epic, evolves from the mores, legends, or folk tales of a people and is initially developed in an oral tradition of story telling. Secondary epics are literary. They are written from their inception and designed to appear as whole stories. Under this definition, Beowulf is a primary epic, the best evidence being that it first existed in the oral tradition. Furthermore, Beowulf does employ digressions, long speeches, journeys and quests, various trials or tests of the hero, and even divine intervention, as do classic epics. We might call Beowulf a folk epic, although some scholars prefer an emphasis on its mythological background. Beowulf, however, differs from the classic epics of ancient Greece, the Iliad and the Odyssey, which were composed some 1,500 years before and set the standard for the epic tradition. It does not open with an invocation to a Muse, and it does not start in medias res (“in the middle of things”), although time is out of joint in the poem, especially in its last third. Some of the devices employed by the Beowulf poet, such as frequent digressions, may seem tedious to the modern reader. To his audience, however, the list of heroes, villains, and battles were familiar. The stories of great achievements were cherished and intended to honor Beowulf’s own accomplishments. Poems like this appealed to a wide audience and constituted a form of public entertainment. In Beowulf itself, we witness the captivating talents of performing storytellers; an example is the scop who sings of The Finnsburh Episode (1063–1159). Beowulf as History One point to remember is that the poem is not history. In a way, Beowulf’s world runs parallel to history. Although it rarely refers to historical facts, the setting is similar to reality in Denmark and Sweden in the fifth and sixth centuries, the time of the action in the poem. The social structure of the comitatus did exist; and the most dominating rituals in the poem, the funerals near the beginning and at the end of the epic, have been confirmed by archaeological discovery. The most famous of these was the Sutton Hoo dig in East Anglia in 1939. Sutton Hoo was a burial ground for one or more East Anglian kings in the early seventh century. Its contents include a ship burial reminiscent of the funeral for Scyld Scefing near the beginning of Beowulf and somewhat like the final resting place of Beowulf himself. Buried with the ship were various gold coins and pieces of armor, including an impressive helmet, a representation of which is used for the cover of Howell D. Chickering, Jr.’s paperback translation. Other artifacts include both pagan and Christian symbols, indicating the fusion of cultures in England approaching the time of the composition of the poem. We might remember that Pope Gregory, who served from 590 to 604, encouraged Christian missionaries to absorb pagan tradition into Christian ritual in order to promote a smooth transition for the pagans. Royal ship burials, at sea or on land, were also part of the Scandinavian culture from at least the fifth century through the ninth. Another significant archaeological discovery was at Oseburg in southern Norway, just one of several in Scandinavia. The tribal feuds of the fifth and sixth centuries are well documented historically, and the death of King Hygelac in battle (circa 520) is a recorded fact. Another custom was the concept of wergild, literally, “man-payment,” the price set on a person’s life according to his social or political station. If a lord or one of his top thanes (sometimes called a retainer) were killed in a feud, the fighting might go on indefinitely, one side killing for vengeance and then the other. However, the fighting could be stopped by a payment of wergild. If a leader were killed, the offending party could pay a certain amount to have the matter settled. Long before the opening of the poem, Hrothgar apparently made such a payment to buy Beowulf’s father out of a feud, and part of Beowulf’s motivation in coming to fight Grendel is to pay off this family obligation. Still, getting too wrapped up in historical parallels is dangerous. While some things are realistic, others are not. The world in Beowulf is one of the imagination. We should not be too concerned about whether Beowulf can hold his breath all day or swim five nights without rest, or, for that matter, whether dragons keep treasure-troves. In Beowulf’s world, they do. Poetic Devices Beowulf is an example of Anglo-Saxon poetry that is distinguished by its heavy use of alliteration. Simply put, alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds of words. For example, notice the initial h sounds in the following line: “The harrowing history haunted the heroes.” In the original Beowulf, alliteration is used in almost every line. A line of the poem actually consists of two half-lines with a caesura (pause) between them. Usually, spacing indicates that pause. In the following example, notice how the words of the first half-line alliterate with each other and the first word of the second half-line: 839 ferdon folc-togan feorran ond nean 839 chieftains came from far and near Sometimes the alliteration is more complicated and has been the subject of many advanced studies. The point for beginning students is that alliteration is as important in Beowulf as rhyme is for some later poets. Beowulf has no consistent pattern of rhyme, although occasional internal rhyme sometimes is effective and seems more than accidental. Imagery in the poem is vivid and often fun, and frequently related through the use of kennings. Put simply, kennings are compound expressions that use characteristics to name a person or thing. One of the most popular examples is hronrade. Literally, the word means “whale-road”; the kenning, then, is for the sea or ocean, a thoroughfare for the whale. One of the strengths of the Chickering facing-page translation is that it often repeats the kennings literally. Sometimes even a beginning student can find the word in Anglo-Saxon, on the opposing page, for comparison. Following are some other examples of kennings: Kenning Literal Translation Meaning hand-sporu hand spike Grendel’s talon word-hord word hoard vocabulary ban-cofan bone box a person’s body Another device that modern readers might notice is the use of litotes, which are figures of speech in which a positive statement is made by the negative of its opposite. It is a form of understatement that is none too subtle. We might say, for example, “Abraham Lincoln was not too bad a President” when we mean to convey that he was a great President. When describing Grendel’s mere (or pool), King Hrothgar says (1372) it is “Not a pleasant place!” It is, in fact, filled with horror. Although modern works often contain poetic devices such as the simile, there are only a few similes in Beowulf. Simile often is described as a comparison between two objects, people, or ideas through the use of a comparative such as “like” or “as.” One simile occurs in line 218 when the poet tells us that the ship went over the sea “like a bird.” A more original, complex, extended simile (2444 ff.) compares the feelings of King Hrethel with those of a father whose son is on the gallows, the “likeness,” or similarity, implied by the first line. As poetry, Beowulf is rich in meaning. Some see it as an early celebration of Christianity. Others think it extols or condemns heroic values. English novelist and scholar J. R. R. Tolkien (“Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics,” Proceedings of the British Academy, XXII [1936], 245–95) argued that Beowulf is a balance between beginnings and endings, of youth and age, the most dominating being Beowulf’s. While the poem is of value historically, it is more interesting as a powerful work of art. A Brief Synopsis Beowulf is the longest and greatest surviving Anglo-Saxon poem. The setting of the epic is the sixth century in what is now known as Denmark and southwestern Sweden. The poem opens with a brief genealogy of the Scylding (Dane) royal dynasty, named after a mythic hero, Scyld Scefing, who reached the tribe’s shores as a castaway babe on a ship loaded with treasure. Scyld’s funeral is a memorable early ritual in the work, but focus soon shifts to the reign of his great-grandson, Hrothgar, whose successful rule is symbolized by a magnificent central mead-hall called Heorot. For 12 years, a huge man-like ogre named Grendel, a descendant of the biblical murderer Cain, has menaced the aging Hrothgar, raiding Heorot and killing the king’s thanes (warriors). Grendel rules the mead-hall nightly. Beowulf, a young warrior in Geatland (southwestern Sweden), comes to the Scyldings’ aid, bringing with him 14 of his finest men. Hrothgar once sheltered Beowulf’s father during a deadly feud, and the mighty Geat hopes to return the favor while enhancing his own reputation and gaining treasure for his king, Hygelac. At a feast before nightfall of the first day of the visit, an obnoxious, drunken Scylding named Unferth insults Beowulf and claims that the Geat visitor once embarrassingly lost a swimming contest to a boyhood acquaintance named Breca and is no match for Grendel. Beowulf responds with dignity while putting Unferth in his place. In fact, the two swimmers were separated by a storm on the fifth night of the contest, and Beowulf had slain nine sea monsters before finally returning to shore. While the Danes retire to safer sleeping quarters, Beowulf and the Geats bed down in Heorot, fully aware that Grendel will visit them. He does. Angered by the joy of the men in the mead-hall, the ogre furiously bursts in on the Geats, killing one and then reaching for Beowulf. With the strength of 30 men in his hand-grip, Beowulf seizes the ogre’s claw and does not let go. The ensuing battle nearly destroys the great hall, but Beowulf emerges victorious as he rips Grendel’s claw from its shoulder socket, sending the mortally wounded beast fleeing to his mere (pool). The claw trophy hangs high under the roof of Heorot. The Danes celebrate the next day with a huge feast featuring entertainment by Hrothgar’s scop (pronounced “shop”), a professional bard who accompanies himself on a harp and sings or chants traditional lays such as an account of the Danes’ victory at Finnsburh. This bard also improvises a song about Beowulf’s victory. Hrothgar’s wife, Queen Wealhtheow, proves to be a perfect hostess, offering Beowulf a gold collar and her gratitude. Filled with mead, wine, and great food, the entire party retires for what they expect to be the first peaceful night in years. But Grendel’s mother—not quite as powerful as her son but highly motivated—climbs to Heorot that night, retrieves her son’s claw, and murderously abducts one of the Scyldings (Aeschere) while Beowulf sleeps elsewhere. The next morning, Hrothgar, Beowulf, and a retinue of Scyldings and Geats follow the mother’s tracks into a dark, forbidding swamp and to the edge of her mere. The slaughtered Aeschere’s head sits on a cliff by the lake, which hides the ogres’ underground cave. Carrying a sword called Hrunting, a gift from the chastised Unferth, Beowulf dives into the mere to seek the mother. Near the bottom of the lake, Grendel’s mother attacks and hauls the Geat warrior to her dimly lit cave. Beowulf fights back once inside the dry cavern, but the gift sword, Hrunting, strong as it is, fails to penetrate the ogre’s hide. The mother moves to kill Beowulf with her knife, but his armor, made by the legendary blacksmith Weland, protects him. Suddenly Beowulf spots a magical, giant sword and uses it to cut through the mother’s spine at the neck, killing her. A blessed light unexplainably illuminates the cavern, disclosing Grendel’s corpse and a great deal of treasure. Beowulf decapitates the corpse. The magic sword melts to its hilt. Beowulf returns to the lake’s surface carrying the head and hilt but leaving the treasure. After more celebration and gifts and a sermon by Hrothgar warning of the dangers of pride and the mutability of time, Beowulf and his men return to Geatland. There he serves his king well until Hygelac is killed in battle and his son dies in a feud. Beowulf is then named king and rules successfully for 50 years. Like Hrothgar, however, his peace is shattered in his declining years. Beowulf must battle one more demon. A fiery dragon has become enraged because a lone fugitive has inadvertently discovered the dragon’s treasure-trove and stolen a valuable cup. The dragon terrorizes the countryside at night, burning several homes, including Beowulf’s. Led by the fugitive, Beowulf and eleven of his men seek out the dragon’s barrow. Beowulf insists on taking on the dragon alone, but his own sword, Naegling, is no match for the monster. Seeing his king in trouble, one thane, Wiglaf, goes to his assistance. The others flee to the woods. Together, Wiglaf and Beowulf kill the dragon, but the mighty king is mortally wounded. Dying, Beowulf leaves his kingdom to Wiglaf and requests that his body be cremated in a funeral pyre and buried high on a seaside cliff where passing sailors might see the barrow. The dragon’s treasure-hoard is buried with him. It is said that they lie there still. Danes (Scyldings) Scyld Scefing A mythical figure, Scyld was the founder of the tribe of the Scyldings long before Beowulf’s story begins. His ship funeral early in the poem is a significant ritual. Hrothgar The aging king of the Danes welcomes Beowulf’s assistance in facing the menace of Grendel. His sermon to Beowulf before the Geat champion’s departure is thematically important; his great mead-hall, Heorot, symbolizes the kingdom’s success, civilization, and joy. Wealhtheow Hrothgar’s queen welcomes Beowulf and is the embodiment of charm and hospitality. Unferth One of Hrothgar’s top retainers, Unferth insults Beowulf after dipping too deeply into the mead bowl at the first banquet. He later lends Beowulf a sword for a crucial battle. Geats (Weder-Folk or Weders) Beowulf A mighty warrior and noble individual, the poem’s hero, with the strength of 30 in his hand-grip, comes to the aid of Hrothgar’s Danes. Later Beowulf is king of the Geats. Wiglaf The only thane to stand with Beowulf against the dragon, he is the Geats’ future king and a symbol of loyalty within the social/political structure of the comitatus. Hygelac King of the Geats and uncle to Beowulf, his death in battle (c. 520) is recorded historically, unlike most of the events in the poem. Hygd Hygelac’s queen is a perfect hostess in the style of Wealhtheow and exemplifies propriety in royalty. Beowulf is loyal to her and her young son, Heardred, when Hygelac dies. Heardred Despite Beowulf’s support, the young king, son of Hygelac and Hygd, is killed in a feud. Beowulf then becomes king of the Geats. Monsters Grendel A descendant of the biblical Cain, the enormous ogre despises mankind’s joy. He menaces Hrothgar and the Danes for 12 years before facing Beowulf in battle. Grendel’s mother Although not as powerful as her son, she is a formidable foe. She and her son live in a cave beneath a swampy lake (or mere) where she battles Beowulf. Dragon Guarding a treasure-trove in Geatland, he is angered when a fugitive steals a single gold-plated flagon. His raids throughout the countryside lead to a battle with Beowulf, the king’s last. Two Men, Three Swords, and a Great Mead-Hall Breca A royal member of the Brondings, he and Beowulf engaged in a swimming contest against each other as adolescents, which Unferth claims Beowulf lost. Weland The legendary, magical blacksmith who made Beowulf’s armor. Hrunting Beowulf receives the ancient sword from Unferth and uses it, albeit unsuccessfully, against Grendel’s mother. Naegling Beowulf’s own mighty sword is ineffective in the fight with the fiery dragon. Magical Giant Sword Beowulf miraculously finds this wonderful weapon in the underwater cave and uses it to kill Grendel’s mother. It melts down to the hilt after Beowulf uses it to decapitate Grendel’s corpse. Beowulf presents the hilt to Hrothgar along with Grendel’s head. Heorot Hrothgar’s mead-hall is more like a palace, symbolizing his and the Scyldings’ success. Grendel sees it as a symbol of mankind’s joy and delights in raiding and capturing it nightly. 1. Swedes (Scylfings) 2. Geats 3. Danes 4. Heorot 5. Frisians 6. Heathobards Lines 1-192 The poem’s narrator calls for the attention of his audience and introduces his topic with a brief genealogy of the Scyldings (Danes). The tribe has taken its name from Scyld Scefing, a mythological hero who, many years earlier, reached their shores as a castaway babe on a ship mysteriously laden with treasure. Through industry, courage, and character, Scyld Scefing became a great leader and honored king. His son, Beow (sometimes called Beowulf but not to be confused with the epic’s central hero), continued the successful reign after Scyld’s death and sea burial. Beow ruled long and well, “beloved by his people” (54). Beow’s son, Healfdene, sired four offspring, the most notable of whom is Hrothgar, king of the Scyldings as the story unfolds. Hrothgar has been a great king and won many victories for his people. As a symbol of his success, he has built a great mead-hall, called Heorot, the finest of its kind. In Heorot, Hrothgar’s men celebrate with joyful laughter and songs from the king’s bard. The Scyldings prosper. An ogre named Grendel lives in the nearby moors and takes exception to his neighbors’ excessive happiness. A descendant of Cain, he envies and resents mankind. One night he attacks without warning and slaughters 30 of Hrothgar’s men. He returns the next night and soon drives the Scyldings from the great hall. His ruthless dominance lasts 12 years. It is often said that Beowulf begins and ends with a funeral, and that is very nearly the case. The narrator sets the heroic tone and introduces the setting through the founding character of Scyld Scefing; his most detailed early description is saved for Scyld’s parting after death. The king’s body is placed on a ship, surrounded by treasure and “war-dress” (39) to accompany him into the unknown. Gold, silver, jewels, and the finest swords and armor are placed aboard with the corpse and then set afloat in the sea. The idea is to honor the king but also to provide him with objects that might prove useful in the afterlife. Hrothgar’s great hall (Heorot, “Hall of the Hart”) functions as both symbol and setting. Symbolically, it represents the achievements of the Scyldings, specifically Hrothgar, and their level of civilization. It is a place of light and warmth in the dark, cold winters. Here Hrothgar celebrates his victories and rewards his thanes (warriors) with various rings and treasures. Heorot is no common beer hall; it is more of a palace, towering high like a cliff. Significantly, this is where Beowulf’s first great battle for the Danes takes place. The hall also symbolizes the concept of comitatus, the honor code that exists between the king, or feudal lord, and his warriors. Thanes swear devotion to their leader and vow to fight boldly, to the death if necessary, for him. If the leader should fall, his life must be avenged. For his part, the leader rewards his thanes with treasure, protection, and land. His generosity often is mentioned as one of his strengths of character. When Grendel invades this setting, he strikes at the very heart of the Scyldings. Grendel’s heritage is essential to his enmity. He is a descendant of the biblical Cain, the eldest son of Adam and Eve who killed his brother Abel out of jealousy (Genesis 4). Cain’s name in Hebrew is Qayin, meaning “creature,” and the legend is that the monsters of the earth are his descendants. Grendel resents the joyful beauty of Heorot and its inhabitants. The scop’s Song of Creation (90–98) especially enrages him because it tells of the beauty and light of God’s creation, which Grendel can never recover for himself. The modern reader might think it odd that the poem’s narrator interrupts his description of the glories of the hall to foreshadow (82–85) the hall’s eventual destruction by Hrothgar’s son-in-law, but such digressions are common in Beowulf. Throughout the epic are the reminders of the sometimes grim whims of fate and the mutability of human existence. The world of Beowulf is harsh, and joy is never permanent. There is considerable scholarly discussion concerning the concept of Christianity in Beowulf. The epic makes no mention of Jesus, and references to one omnipotent God are more Old than New Testament. Harold Bloom (Bloom’s Reviews: Beowulf, 1999, p. 5) says that the epic is a Christian poem but “just barely.” Hrothgar and Beowulf sometimes refer to a single, all-powerful God; there are instances of symbolic rebirth in the epic. Grendel and his mother are described as descendants of Cain. The Beowulf poet may have been an educated Christian, and his audience in eighth-century England had been exposed to the religion. But the poem is more heroic than Christian. Sometimes it seems as if Christian terms have simply replaced heroic. For example, occasional mention of God’s determination regarding man’s fortune, throughout the poem, sounds very much like the Anglo-Saxon concept of fate (wyrd). This heroic/Christian world is the context for Grendel who “grieved not at all / for his wicked deeds” (136–37) as well as the thanes who “were ignorant of God, / knew not how to worship our Protector above” (181–82). Grendel is too deeply engrossed in sin to consider repentance. He is beyond hope. The thanes are pagan and near despair themselves as Grendel decimates them. They offer sacrifices to heathen gods and speak old words designed to ward off evil. Some scholars argue that the warriors are Christian but “backsliding” to pagan ritual under stress. At any rate, nothing works. Hrothgar and his men abandon the glorious hall at night, and it becomes Grendel’s lair. Only the “gift-throne” (168), Hrothgar’s seat of power, cannot be touched by Grendel because it carries God’s blessing. Hrothgar has grown old and is helpless against Grendel. He needs “the strongest of all living men” (196) to rescue him. Glosary Spear-Danes Scyldings, the tribe of Scyld Scefing. waif a forsaken or orphaned child, such as Scyld. whale-road ocean or sea, from the Anglo-Saxon hron-rade. This is one of the poem’s best known kennings, descriptive metaphors that identify a person or thing by a chief characteristic or use. Life-lord God. ring-giver ruler, king, feudal lord. Scylfing Swede. mead an alcoholic drink made from fermented honey and water. middle-earth a land between Heaven and Hell, inhabited by mankind as well as a variety of good or evil creatures with origins in legend, mythology, or fantasy. scop a bard or singing (chanting) performer who often accompanies himself on a lute or harp, presenting historical or legendary stories of interest. He might be attached to a court or travel on his own. Preferred pronunciation is “shop.” walking dead similar to zombies, cursed to roam the earth after death. thanes warriors who serve a king or feudal lord in exchange for land or treasure. warlock a male witch or demon. Lines 1251–1491 summary On the night following Grendel’s death, the warriors sleep easy in Heorot for the first time in years, confident that the terror of the ogre is behind them. They don’t realize that Grendel has a living mother intent on revenge. She ascends from her mere and raids the hall, retrieving Grendel’s claw and murderously abducting one of the thanes. Before dawn, Beowulf and his men report to Hrothgar. The Geat hero agrees to pursue Grendel’s mother. Hrothgar promises more rewards and greater fame for Beowulf. Accompanied by warriors, Hrothgar leads Beowulf to the mere that harbors the vengeful mother. It is a dark and evil place. Huge serpents and water-beasts inhabit the lake. Beowulf dresses for battle and prepares to search the lake for the enemy. Unferth humbles himself by presenting Beowulf with his great sword, Hrunting. The Geat hero speaks what may be his final words. Commentary Grendel’s mother embodies the theme of revenge as she buries her grief in an assault on Heorot. Again the Beowulf poet reminds us that she is a descendant of Cain; but there is something very human about her motivation, which John Gardner explores compassionately in his novel Grendel (1971). Although she is smaller and weaker than her son and lacks his magical protection from weapons, she is determined to avenge his death and retrieve the gruesome trophy that hangs under Heorot’s roof. Once in the hall, she faces a number of warriors who, in force, probably can defeat her. She grabs one, Aeschere, Hrothgar’s “dearest warrior” (1296) and chief adviser. Carrying the man as well as her son’s arm, she retreats to the mere. Beowulf is once more challenged by the possibility of increased reward—treasure and fame—and is further motivated by his devotion to Hrothgar. In his pre-dawn meeting with the king, Beowulf is informed of a rumor that has, for years, suggested the existence of two ogres, one possibly in the shape of a woman. Their den reportedly is hidden in a dark mere deep within “high wolf-country” (1357), a secret place amid wind-swept cliffs and “frost-bound trees” (1364). The poet’s description of the mere and its surroundings is especially eerie and effective. The imagery is specific, powerful, and dark. We are told that not even the wisest of humans knows what is at the bottom of the lake. The lake is so forbidding that a hart, chased by savage hounds, will die facing the dogs rather than seek safety by plunging into the water. “Not a pleasant place!” says the poet in classic understatement (an example of litotes). In fact, this place is very evil. The mere is “overhung with roots that sag and clutch” (1363); it seems to burst into flame at night, portending evil and reminding the audience of the ugly light that “shone out like fire” (727) from Grendel’s eyes. In contrast to the joyful light of Heorot, here the hills are dark; black waves erupt from the mere; a “gloomy wind / stirs awful storms till the air turns choking, / the heavens weep” (1374–76). When Hrothgar and his retinue accompany Beowulf to the mere, easily following the mother’s footprints, the poet’s description is again specific and forbidding as the party enters a cold, gray, “joyless wood” (1416). Adding to the horror is the discovery of Aeschere’s head on a cliff near the lake. The lake bubbles with Aeschere’s blood. The mother apparently has swum with the body to an underwater hideout, some sort of waterless cavern or den whose entrance is through the mere. Unferth’s presentation of his treasured sword, Hrunting, to Beowulf is an admission of the Geat’s superior courage and ability. So insulting when full of mead at the earlier banquet, Unferth now is all humility. Despite his obnoxious behavior at Heorot when Beowulf first arrived, we have been told that Unferth cares as much about “famous deeds” (505) and his own fame as any warrior. Now his reputation is permanently damaged because he lacks the courage to pursue the mother: “he lost fame for that” (1470). Beowulf is not as concerned with sportsmanship as he was in the battle with Grendel. He wears his mail-shirt and helmet and carries weapons. Although the mother is less powerful than Grendel, the battle will be on her turf, a strange environment. And she is highly motivated by revenge. Beowulf’s final words before diving into the unknown of the lake are realistic. He has earlier said (1384–89) that it is better to avenge a friend than to mourn; each must face his mortality and win whatever reputation he can before death. Now (1474 ff.) he asks Hrothgar to send to Beowulf’s king, Hygelac, any treasure bestowed to the Geat if he should not return from this battle. Beowulf is ready for the battle. Again, he seeks the fame of victory or death. Glosary abysm of time a reference to the hellish chaos, the unfathomable chasm that spawned Grendel’s mother and other descendants of Cain. Ring-Danes the Scyldings. Ingwines another name for the Scyldings. Yrmenlaf a Dane, Aeschere’s younger brother. rune-counselor an advisor especially adept at solving difficult problems. unsouled The soul was believed to leave the body shortly after death. bone-house a kenning for the body. venom-twigs Some scholars suggest that Hrunting’s edge was equipped with small, sharp points to which poison may have been applied; more likely, this is a reference to the use of acid (poison) in the shaping of the points during manufacture, a customary procedure of the time. son of Ecglaf Unferth. Hrethel father of King Hygelac, the Geat to whom Beowulf owes ultimate allegiance. Critical Essays Major Themes A theme in a literary work is a recurring, unifying subject or idea, a motif that allows us to understand more deeply the character and their world. In Beowulf, the major themes reflect the values and the motivations of the characters. Loyalty One of the central themes of Beowulf, embodied by its title character, is loyalty. At every step of his career, loyalty is Beowulf’s guiding virtue. Beowulf comes to the assistance of the Danes (Scyldings) for complicated reasons. Certainly he is interested in increasing his reputation and gaining honor and payment for his own king back in Geatland. However, we soon learn that a major motivation is a family debt that Beowulf owes to Hrothgar. The young Geat is devoted to the old king because Hrothgar came to the assistance of Beowulf’s father, Ecgtheow, years before. Now deceased, Ecgtheow had killed a leader of another tribe in a blood feud. When the tribe sought vengeance, Hrothgar, then a young king, sheltered Beowulf’s father and settled the feud by paying tribute (wergild) in the form of “fine old treasures” (472) to Ecgtheow’s enemies. Hrothgar even remembers Beowulf as a child. The tie between the families goes back many years, and Beowulf is proud to be able to lend his loyal services to Hrothgar. When the hero returns to Geatland, he continues his loyalty to his uncle and king, Hygelac, risking his life even when the tactics of the ruler are not the best. After Hygelac is killed in an ill-advised raid on Frisia, Beowulf makes a heroic escape (2359 ff.) back to Geatland. Beowulf could become king then but is more loyal than ambitious. Queen Hygd offers Beowulf the throne after her husband dies, thinking that her young son (Heardred) is unable to protect the kingdom; Beowulf refuses and serves the young king faithfully. After Heardred is killed, Beowulf does become king and rules with honor and fidelity to his office and his people for 50 years. In his final test, the burden of loyalty will rest on other, younger shoulders. Preparing for his last battle, with the fiery dragon, Beowulf puts his trust in 11 of his finest men, retainers who have vowed to fight to the death for him. Although the now elderly king insists on taking on the dragon alone, he brings along the 11 in case he needs them. When it is apparent that Beowulf is losing the battle to the dragon, however, all but one of his men run and hide in the woods. Only Wiglaf, an inexperienced thane who has great respect for his king, remains loyal. Wiglaf calls to the others in vain. Realizing that they will be no help and that his king is about to be killed, he stands beside the old man to fight to the death—theirs or the dragon’s. For Beowulf, sadly, it is the end. Although he and Wiglaf kill the dragon, the king dies. As he dies, Beowulf passes the kingdom on to the brave and loyal Wiglaf. Reputation Another motivating factor for Beowulf—and a central theme in the epic—is reputation. From the beginning, Beowulf is rightly concerned about how the rest of the world will see him. He introduces himself to the Scyldings by citing achievements that gained honor for him and his king. When a drunken Unferth verbally assaults Beowulf at the first banquet, at issue is the hero’s reputation. Unferth’s slur is the worst kind of insult for Beowulf because his reputation is his most valuable possession. Reputation is also the single quality that endures after death, his one key to immortality. That’s why Beowulf later leaves the gold in the cave beneath the mere, after defeating the mother, preferring to return with Grendel’s head and the magic sword’s hilt rather than treasure. He has and continues to amass treasures; his intent now is in building his fame. Unferth’s slur accuses Beowulf of foolishly engaging in a seven-day swimming contest on the open sea, as a youth, and losing. If Beowulf can’t win a match like that, Unferth asserts, he surely can’t defeat Grendel. Beowulf defends his reputation with such grace and persuasion that he wins the confidence of King Hrothgar and the rest of the Danes. He points out that he swam with Breca for five nights, not wanting to abandon the weaker boy. Rough seas then drove them apart, and Beowulf had to kill nine sea monsters before going ashore in the morning. His reputation intact, Beowulf prepares to meet Grendel and further enhance his fame. As he discusses Beowulf’s later years, the poet lists the virtues (2177 ff.) leading to the great man’s fine reputation. Beowulf is courageous and famous for his performance in battle but equally well known for his good deeds. Although aggressive in war, Beowulf has “no savage mind” (2180) and never kills his comrades when drinking, an important quality in the heroic world of the mead-hall. Beowulf respects the gifts of strength and leadership that he possesses. As he prepares to meet the dragon, near the end of the poem, now King Beowulf again considers his reputation. He insists on facing the dragon alone despite the fact that his death will leave his people in jeopardy. Hrothgar’s Sermon warned Beowulf of the dangers of pride, and some critics have accused the great warrior of excessive pride (hubris) in the defense of his reputation. A more considerate judgment might be that Beowulf is an old man with little time left and deserves the right to die as a warrior. The final words of the poem, stating that Beowulf was “most eager for fame’ (3182), might be best understood by a modern audience by remembering that, in Beowulf’s world, fame is synonymous with reputation. Generosity and Hospitality The Scyldings’ King Hrothgar and Queen Wealhtheow embody the themes of generosity and hospitality. The code of the comitatus is at the heart of the Beowulf epic. In this system, the king or feudal lord provides land, weapons, and a share of treasure to his warriors (called thanes or retainers) in return for their support of the leader in battle. The leader’s generosity is one of his highest qualities. There are more than 30 different terms for “king” in the poem, and many of them have to do with this role as provider. He is the “ring-giver’ (35) or the “treasure-giver” (607); his seat of power is the “gift-throne” (168). When booty is seized from an enemy in battle, everything goes to the king. He then allots treasure to each warrior according to the man’s achievements as a soldier. When Beowulf defeats Grendel and Grendel’s mother, he expects and receives great riches as his reward, including a golden banner, helmet, and mail-shirt, as well as a jeweled sword, magnificent horses with golden trappings that hang to the ground, a gem-studded saddle, and a golden collar. Such generosity is emblematic of Hrothgar’s character. In turn, Beowulf will present these treasures to his own king, Hygelac, who will then honor Beowulf with appropriate gifts. Propriety/generosity is, thus, a crucial part of the political, military, social, and economic structure of the culture. Wealhtheow shares in the gift giving and is the perfect hostess. When she serves mead in Heorot, it is an act of propriety and diplomacy, attending first to her king and then to various guests, paying special attention to Beowulf. An improper queen would be one like Modthrytho (1931 ff.) who was so inhospitable as to have her own warriors executed for the offense of merely looking into her eyes. Hospitality is such an established part of the culture that the poet feels free to refer to it with casual humor. When Beowulf reports to Hrothgar on his victory over Grendel (957 ff.), he ironically speaks in terms of hospitality. He tried, he says, to “welcome my enemy” (969) with a firm handshake but was disappointed when he received only a “visitor’s token” (971), Grendel’s giant claw, “that dear [meaning ‘precious’] gift” (973), a kind of macabre gratuity for services rendered. Beowulf had, ironically speaking, tried to be the perfect host; but he wanted the entire ogre body as his tip. Grendel left only his claw as a cheap compensation. Envy Despite Unferth’s jealous rant at the first banquet, the most serious embodiment of envy in the poem is Grendel. The ogre who has menaced Hrothgar’s people for 12 years is envious of the Danes because he can never share in mankind’s hope or joy. The monster’s motivation is one of the few undeniably Christian influences in the epic. Grendel is a descendant of Cain, the biblical son of Adam and Eve who killed his brother Abel out of jealousy (Genesis 4). The legend is that the monsters of the earth are Cain’s descendants and eternally damned. Grendel resents men because God blesses them but will never bless him. The bright lights and sounds of joy emanating from Hrothgar’s magnificent mead-hall, Heorot, especially annoy the ogre. The scop’s “Song of Creation” angers Grendel because it reminds him of the light and hope of God’s creation and the loss he suffers because of Cain’s sin. Grendel stomps up from the mere to devour Danes and rule nightly over Heorot as a form of revenge stemming from this envy. Revenge Revenge serves as a motivating factor for several characters throughout the poem, initially stirring Grendel and his mother. Grendel seeks revenge upon mankind for the heritage that he has been dealt. He delights in raiding Heorot because it is the symbol of everything that he detests about men: their success, joy, glory, and favor in the eyes of God. Grendel’s mother’s revenge is more specific. She attacks Heorot because someone there killed her son. Although she is smaller and less powerful than Grendel, she is motivated by a mother’s fury. When Beowulf goes after her in the mere, she has the added advantage of fighting him in her own territory. As she drags him into her cave beneath the lake, her revenge peaks because this is the very man who killed her son. Only Beowulf’s amazing abilities as a warrior and the intervention of God or magic can defeat her. Revenge also motivates the many feuds that the poet refers to and is a way of life—and death—for the Germanic tribes. Old enmities die hard and often disrupt attempts at peace, as the poet recognizes. Upon his return to Geatland, Beowulf (2020 ff.) speculates about a feud between Hrothgar’s Scyldings and the Heathobards, a tribe in southern Denmark with whom Hrothgar hopes to make peace through the marriage of his daughter. Beowulf is skeptical, envisioning a renewal of hostilities. In fact, the Heathobards do later burn Heorot in events not covered by the poem but probably familiar to its audience. Another example of revenge overcoming peace occurs in the Finnsburh section (1068–1159). Beowulf’s final battle is the result of vengeance. A dangerous fire-dragon seeks revenge because a fugitive slave has stolen a valuable cup from the monster’s treasure-hoard. His raids across the countryside include the burning of Beowulf’s home. Beowulf then seeks his own revenge by going after the dragon. Critical Essays Major Symbols A literary symbol is something, often an object, that stands for a significant concept or series of ideas. Often a symbol is emblematic of the values of the characters. In Beowulf, some of the most important symbols are Hrothgar’s mead-hall, Grendel’s cave, Grendel’s arm and head, and the dragon’s treasure-trove. Heorot Hrothgar’s great mead-hall, Heorot (“Hall of the Hart”), functions as both setting and symbol in the epic. It is much more than a place to drink. Symbolically, Heorot represents the achievements of the Scyldings, specifically Hrothgar, and their level of civilization. The hall is a home for the warriors who sleep there and functions as a seat of government. It is a place of light, warmth, and joy, contrasting with Grendel’s morbid swamp as well as the dark and cold of winters in Scandinavia. In Heorot, Hrothgar celebrates his victories and rewards his thanes (warriors) with various treasures. The building is like a palace. It towers high and is compared to a cliff. The gables are shaped like horns of the hart. People from neighboring tribes have respectfully contributed to the rich decorations and intricate designs. The hall is also symbolic in that it is the setting of Beowulf’s first great battle, the defeat of Grendel. When Grendel invades the hall, he knows that he strikes at the very heart of the Scyldings. That lends special meaning to his victories and to Beowulf’s eventual liberation of the hall from the ravages of the ogres. The Cave The cave where Grendel and his mother hide from the world is symbolic of their lives as outcasts. Hidden beneath a treacherous mere in the middle of a dark, forbidding swamp, the cave allows them a degree of safety and privacy in a world that they view as hostile. They certainly are not welcome at Heorot, and they know it. The cave also represents their heritage. As descendants of Cain, they are associated with sorcery, black magic, demons, ancient runes, and hell itself. When Grendel’s mother is able to fight Beowulf in the cave, she has a distinct advantage; his victory is all the more significant. It is not clear whether he wins because of his own ability, the influence of magic (the giant sword), or God’s intervention. All are mentioned, probably because the poet borrowed from various influences in creating the poem. The cave itself represents a world alien to Heorot. One is high and bright and full of song and joy, towering as the Scyldings’ greatest achievement. The other is dark and dank and full of evil, beneath a mere in the middle of a fen and the symbolic home of resentful outcasts. Grendel’s Claw and Head Beowulf had hoped to have an entire Grendel body to present to King Hrothgar after his battle with the ogre in Heorot. He has to settle for the right arm or claw, ripped from its shoulder socket, when the mortally wounded adversary flees to the swamp. The claw is hung high beneath Heorot’s roof (most likely on the outside beneath the gables) as a symbol of Beowulf’s victory. Grendel’s mother also sees it as a symbol, representing her personal loss and mankind’s macabre sense of what might be an appropriate trophy. Filled with grief and rage, she retrieves the arm from Heorot and kills another Scylding in the process. When Beowulf tracks her to the mere and ends up in her underwater cave, he has no more interest in the claw. Grendel’s head, which he is able to find after a strange, perhaps holy brilliance illuminates the dimly lighted cave, is much more impressive. He ignores the vast treasure in the cave, instead choosing to carry the magnificent, huge head as symbolic of his victory over both ogres. The Dragon’s Treasure-Trove The dragon’s treasure-trove poignantly represents the vanity of human wishes as well as the mutability of time. The dragon’s barrow holds wealth in abundance, yet the wealth is of no use to anyone. The ancient treasures in the hoard once belonged to a regional tribe of warriors who were killed in battle some 300 years previously. Only one survivor, who is called the “keeper of the rings” (2244), lived to hide the treasures in the barrow. Just as the dead warriors cannot use the treasure, neither can the dragon. He devotes his life to guarding a treasure that he frankly has no use for. Beowulf gives his life defeating the dragon and gaining this impressive treasure for his people, but they won’t benefit from it either. The treasure is buried with the great warrior in his funeral barrow and, we are told, remains there still, a mighty horde of riches that is of absolutely no use to anybody.